The Dutch Disease: Lessons from Norway

The Dutch disease Lessons from NorwayMethodologyThis research has exploratory and its empiric object is the Dutch Disease healing process by an opposite(prenominal) countries and by means of this information offer solutions for Nigeria. The methodology used is the case finishvass and development compendium of the st rovegies used by other countries for the neutralization of the Dutch Disease.The study consists in a research approach method which is characterized by describing the case of an event and its implications. There be several types of case studies, alone here is one exploratory case study in social club to create a better conceptual definition and understanding of the reanimate of Dutch Disease.A literature search was performed from a review, using inessential data analysis. Studies on secondary sources involve bibliographic books and research already done on the subject under study. We selected some expert writes on the subject related to this step. We chose to work with significant formers on the subject for bring forward study each of them.This analysis was organized into three chronological poles, as advocated by Bardin (2004) pre-analysis, material exploration and treatment of results, inference and interpretation. The first stage is characterized as the organizational phase and has three missions the choice of documents to be submitted to analysis, the facial expression of hypotheses and objectives and the development of indicators to substantiate the final interpretation. (Bardin, 2004 p.89).Finally, it was done the treatment and interpretation of the results obtained, in which the raw results are treated in order to be significant and valid. (Bardin, 2004, p.95). Thus found significant results that indicate how to glom the Dutch in Nigeria, as proposed for the work. Bardin (2004) points out, however, that the results obtained may cause a different outcome to the polish initially presented, serving as a basis for further anal ysis arranged around new-made theoretical dimensions, or practiced convey to different techniques. Finally, a conclusion is made about the Dutch Disease by the references of this work, assessing all the information collected and selected.NorwayNorway for decades was the poorest estate of the Scandinavian region. However, in the recent scotch history the country has been distinguished from the others presenting higher gross national product fruit compared to the rest of Europe and other developed countries such as United States, as presented in the graph on a lower floor. This turn of events is conventionally attributed to Norways vegetable crude discovery in 1969 and subsequent origination from 1971. In 2012, the crude welkin represented more than 23 per cent of the countrys total value creation. The revenues from the petroleum sector constitute 30 pct of the state revenues. Today Norway is the 7th largest exporter of oil and the 3rd largest producer of swash in the w orld. With per capita gross domestic product around $100,000, the Norwegian lifestyle has become such that the work week averages slight than 33 hours, one of the lowest in the world, and composition unemployment is low, there is large underemployment, made possible by advantages.GDP GrowthSource OECD (2015)However, it is insufficient in explaining the Norwegian economic harvest-home pointing to oil revenues as it was previously explained in detail about the nix coitionship surrounded by pick wealth and wealth caused by the economic illness of Dutch Disease. In fact, Norway assume managed successfully its oil wealth and avoided falling into trap of graphic detestation.Larsen (2004) explains the change in the speed of harvest-tide in the decade after starting the exploration of oil was invariable with symptoms of Dutch Disease, however, continued growing over the two subsequent decades. This is an examine of an escape from Resource Curse thus, Norway did non experienc e retardation from mid-70s to mid-90s. Mehlum, Moene and Torvik (2006) pointed to Norway and other few countries as the only ones that were able to counteract the election curse and the rent-seeking activities that are usually associated with it.Fosu (2012, pg. 45) argued that Norway escaped from Dutch Disease for several reasonsNorway has a history of natural resource management and integration with other industries with various linkagesThe institutions already were developed to handle shocks to the prudence such as large changes in terms of businesssThe revenues from oil extraction were gradually degage from expense these rents by establishing a buffer descent that helped to stabilize the economyAccording these rents from oil exportation became more significant, the buffer fund became large and a new fiscal policy was implemented in 2001This fund invested abroad and the returns are used to finance public expenditure with slight deadweight loss.In 1996 the Norwegian governi ng signed the Petroleum Act which constitutes the court-ordered basis for the regulation of petroleum sector. In principle, it stated the rent from oil and accelerator pedal belongs to the Norwegian people through their presidential term. Gylfason (2001) describes that as the Norwegian government has high interest in controlling the oil sector, has decided to deprive the oil and gas rent through valuatees and fees. The State awards a lilliputian fee to domestic and remote oil companies and receives roughly 40 per centum of all produced through direct partnership with licensees, taxationes and fees that corresponded to about 80 of the resource rent since 1980.Bresser-Pereira (2008) in its paper about a Ricardian approach of Dutch Disease describes that the severity of the natural curse varies according to the difference among the exchange rate equilibrium of the market rate and the industrial rate. The author points to the management of exchange rate through export tax on t he commodities as the principal means for neutralization of Dutch Disease. Furthermore, the author argues that the resources from tax created to neutralize the natural curse should non be invested in the country but in international fund therefore, the inflow of resources does not entail the revaluation of the local currency.Bresser-Pereira (2008) explains that Norway by imposing a tax on commodities adjusted the exchange rate equilibrium bringing it to the corresponding level of tradable sector exchange rate equilibrium thus, neutralizing the Dutch Disease. Moreover, the new adjusted exchange rate will be more undecomposed than the previous one thus, the country will have a geomorphological current account surplus.Gylfason (2001) also describes the oil revenues are deposited in the Norwegian Petroleum monetary fund allowed to invest only in foreign securities for the benefit of the current and future Norwegians generations. Only the real rate return of these assets is transfe rred to the annual State budget, according to the fiscal guideline, the government deficit cannot exceed 4 pct of the assets. This is also important to shield the domestic economy from mismanagement, counteract and overinvestment. Larsen (2004) defines this shield important because protects the economy from excessive motive and real perceptiveness when at full capacity, therefore, reduce loss of competitiveness. It is also beneficial when it is not at full capacity to allow some increases in core demand.Fosu (2012) described the two functions of this fund. The first is to secure that oil windfall is not consumed, but converted into financial wealth. The second is to separate these revenues from the domestic spending that would not vary according to the oil price fluctuation (fiscal policy). The thought is to have a stable spending of the oil revenues without interfere in the industry sector structure. Additionally, it helps to shield the non-oil economy from shocks in the oil sector, which can put insistence on the exchange rate.Brahmbhatt, Canuto, and Vostroknutova (2010) discuss solutions for solving the natural resource issue. They argue that fiscal policy is the most important instrument because can make the increase in wealth permanent as the same time as it can constrain the spending marrow to reduce volatility. Spending policies toward tradable sector (including imports) and frequent policies toward improving productivity of occult firms help to reduce the negative involves. Additionally, the government can encourage demand for imports to reduce demand pressure on the non-tradable sector while mitigates pressure on exchange rate appreciation and other adverse cause of natural resource windfall.In the case of Norway we can see in graph below the country has stimulated improvements in the manufacturing sector that has change magnitude its participation in the economy by 5% of GDP while the energy sector has fallen about 10 percent and non-tra dable sector remained stable. We can infer that has an effort from the government to push the manufacturing sector through investment in reading, business regulations, or reducing trade barriers and bureaucracy. Brahmbhatt et al. (2010) describes that these reforms have the aim of promoting foreign direct investment and create conditions for learning by doing.The exchange rate is impacted by the sizing of the non-oil budget deficit, or spending revenues as illustrated by Aamodt (2014). In short term oil and gas companies purchases NOK and the Norges Banks exchange transactions have set on the krone exchange rate. Conversely, in long term is the size of non-oil deficit that affects the Norways exchange rate. The revenues from oil do not have an impact by the fact that all government revenues from oil are accrued directly in foreign currency. But the government appreciates NOK when sells foreign currency to buy NOK in an amount equivalent to the budget deficit. In other words the br eakdown of the governments net property flow from oil sector into foreign exchange revenues resulting from oil and gas companies has no influence on the krone exchange rate.With the Petroleum Fund the government isolates the proceedings of oil shocks and the oil price fluctuations on Norwegian economy because the entry of money into the economy is controlled and planned according to the penury of the country. The State can make long term plan regarded to its domestic spending and accordingly maintain the krone exchange rate and pompousness stable even when the oil demand decreases.Other factors were important to neutralize the resource curse in Norway as stated by Gylfason (2001). The author explains that Norway has a centralized wage formation system to limit oecumenic wage increases at the magnitude of productivity increases in manufacturing sector. This is possible because the trade unions are large coalitions of employers and employees that are able to consider aggregate i nterests sooner of special ones. Additionally, both parts use a neutral authority to compute productivity increases in the manufacturing sector, institutionalize this information as ceilings of general wage increases. Therefore the countrys centralized wage dialogue system contributes to prevent fast appreciation of salaries in different sectors.Larsen (2004) argues that income coordination is important as the public sector limited wage increases to the productivity maturement in the internationally competing industrial sector. In other words, this income coordination neutralized the impact of externality in the manufacturing sector avoiding high inequalities between tradable sector and resource sector. This is an important factor for the neutralization of Dutch Disease as reduces the beat back shift between the two sectors. The graph below shows the wage development in Norway since 2002 in which we can see that gap between oil sector and the others never exceeded 2 per cent i n this period.Institutional grapheme is considered by Mehlum et al. (2006) as an important element to reduce the effects of Dutch Disease as natural resource abundance stimulates the shift from yield rent-seeking to the activities related to resource extraction. The authors associate the lack of natural curse with the founding of efficient, bureaucratic and transparent government. They presented a model in which shows the negative effect of resource abundance on growth vanishes in countries with high institutional quality like Norway.The quality of institutions is also related to the corruption detection index as a measure of rent-seeking. Gylfason (2001) found a relation between natural resources wealth and increase in corruption and consequently decrease the per capita growth. In Norways case, the author showed that since oil was discovered, the corruption has declined and countrys GDP growth was stable during the last three decades. The graphs below shows Norway keeps a high l evel of freedom of corruption placed between 10 less corrupted countries of the world while economic growth spurted since the oil descovery, especially after 2000.Finally, the public expenditure on education in Norway did not decrease after oil descovery. According to OECD, Norway has an unthinkable 100% literacy rate and is third country which invests more in education, what proves the government decisions are not oriented to favor natural resource extraction instead of other tradable goods production. Gylfason (2000, p. 4) in its studies about the correlation between natural resources, education and economic development showed that countries with natural resources wealth invest less in education and consequently has a poor economic performance. Nevertheless, the author mentions that Norway is one of the few exceptions The Norwegians show no signs of neglecting education, on the contrary, as the symmetry of each cohort attending colleges and universities in Norway rose from 26 pe rcent in 1980 to 62% in 1997.

Marxist View Of The Colonialism History Essay

red View Of The Colonialism History EssayEuropean colonial stoppage was the period 1500-1900 in most of the European powers to colonize Africa, America and Asia. designed to boost the bottom of the depression region of the topic economy at the expense of rivals, the colonies argon usually allowed to deal only with the mother nation. By mid-nineteenth century, the great British Empire as trade restrictions mer toilettetilism and formal the principle of free trade, the conditions of the restrictions or charges.The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2006 used the newfoundsworthiness colonialism to describe the process in Europe in other regions of the world, including the Americas, Australia, Africa and part of Asia settlement and political control. Countries of imperialism and colonialism, constantly discussed because it is difficult to distinguish between these twain words distinction, and use this project as a broad creation of colonialism is the dominant 16th-century Eur opean political project to the ratiocination of the twentieth century, the national liberation movement in the 1960s.The relationship between the colonial pressure of the majority (or import) and irrelevant invaders of indigenous minorities. What is the decision, affecting the life of colonial peoples and the murder of the colonial obtainrs in pursuit of interests, is usually defined in a distant city. Refused to compromise cultural colonial cosmos, are convinced the settlers and their decree task, in parliamentary procedure to rule out the advantage. 7Activities that cigarette be called colonialism has a long history. Africa, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans built in the ancient colony from the colonial empires. urban center from the Greek metropolis the mother city, colonial word comes from the Latin eau de cologne grew up. Between 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnamese established military colonies southerly of their original terrain and immersed the territory, in a procedure known as nam tin.Recent colonialism started with the Age of Discovery. Spain and portugal discovered new land built or opened large tracts of land between the ocean and shopping centers. For or so people, it is the expansion of other types of construction colonialism colonial characteristics of the other side of the ocean. In this new land was divided between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire, and so between the papal bulls and the Treaty of Tordesillas and Zaragoza (1529) of the Treaty.With this commercial revolution. See the new-fashioned Middle Ages in Italy and the eastern Mediterranean, accounting and banking sector reform. These ideas were adopted, and adapt to the mettlesome risk in Western Europe, and return to the colonial enterprise.In the seventeenth century, the establishment of Dutch colonial empire and the cut Empire and the French colonial empire, and of later became the British Empire. He also believes that the establishment of colonial empires, colonies abroad in Denmark and Sweden.Reduce the spread of colonial empires in the late 19th century, the coupled States as early as in 18 of the Revolutionary War and the War of Independence in Latin America. However, the accession of a new colony, after this period, including the Belgian colonial empire and German colonial empire. And participated in several European powers in the late 19th century, the scramble for Africa.I found, at the equivalent time above the Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but does not extend over the ocean. In contrast, the traditional route of the invasion of neighboring lands imperial expansion. , However, some of Russias Bering laissez passer colonial rule in the joined States. Empire of Japan itself along the European colonial empires. Overseas Territories in the United States after the Spanish-American War, the American Empire.After World War I, the victors divided the German colonial empire . galore(postnominal) of the Ottoman Empire and between them these tasks Alliance land is divided into common chord different speed, and believes he will be ready for independence. 11 However, outside the United States until after World War II decolonization delay. In 1962, the United Nations Special Decolonization Committee, and is often referred to as the Committee of 24, in order to facilitate this process.In addition, tens of thousands of the independence movement and the political unity of the spherical project, the former colonies of the Movement of Non-Aligned key role in the decolonization efforts.Marxist view of colonialismMarxism sights colonialism as a form of capitalist economy, imposing exploitation and kindly variation. Marx believed that working within the capitalist world system, the uneven development of colonialism is closely related. A file corruption and large-scale development and system-dependent economic distortions, psychological and social chaos, povert y and the great dependence of neo-colonialism. 16 according to Marxist historians, whether it is in the Western European countries colony, stealing more than half of a radiation diagram life, the lack of nutrition citizens. 17 in the colonies and outturn means. Raw squares and looking for new investment opportunities is the result of the accumulation of capital, competition between capitalist economy. Lenin, imperialism, colonialism, imperialist monopoly capitalism through colonialism and night Sonja S. He explains Vladimir Lenin called a firm principle of self-rule of the people in his socialist revolution thesis on the pay to self-determination of the socialist Internationals plan OLL a key factor, he quoted Lenin that the justly of peoples to self-determination, special rights, in the political sense of independence, license political insulation of the rights of the oppressed countries. more specifically, the demand for political reasons. democracy suggests complete freedo m to stir for secession and for a survey on secession by the seceding nation-state.In recent years, scientists have invested less attention to the discussion of colonialism in the Marxist tradition. This decline reflects the operate of Marxism in academic practice and policy. However, Marxism, locomote the independence movement of all post-colonial theory and anti-colonial rule over the world. force attention to the expansion, helps to explain the concept of European politics after the end of the sustained economic development of direct political rule, and pointed out that the material basis of Marxism. From the point of view of Marxism, a form of imperialism is inevitable. Large population exported to overseas resource-rich land, the countrys industrial products and a reliable source of natural resources to make believe a market. Or, you can be the weakest countries face the choice between self-imposed acceptance of foreign products, is not conducive to work under the influenc e of the local industry or political, in order to achieve the same goal. Marxs analysis of the progressive forces of colonialism brought update feudal society like a transparent rationalization of foreign domination. However, his British hegemony account reflects the contradictions of capitalism in Europe. In both cases, the Marx recognized during the transition from feudal society to capitalist society caused great pain at the same time unhappy that the change is necessary and progressive end. He said, the penetration of the trade, lead to a social revolution in India. For Marx, the positive and negative consequences of the disease. Traditional farmers are losing their livelihoods, is a lot of human suffering, but also shows that the traditional untaught communities far from ideal, but the site of class oppression and slavery, suffering and cruelty. The first phase of the modernisation process is completely negative, because of the poor pay leaden taxes to support the British r ule, withstand economic crisis the English cotton production cheaper. Ultimately, however, British merchants began to realize that the Indians can not afford to buy vesture or imports of British administration, if they do not effectively trade in goods, providing incentives for production and investment in infrastructure in the UK. Marx believed that the British rule greedy and cruel exercise, he feels he is still an agent of progress. Therefore, Marx discussed the British rule in India three aspects the account of the modernistic nature of foreign domination, the critique of the human suffering involved, and the last parameter of the British rule should be temporary, if the evolutionary potential to achieve .Lenins perspective, imperialism clear key. He distressed that imperialism is a way to make the European countries to postpone the inevitable extremist crisis exports by countries with weak local economic burden. Lenin said, the economic logic of the reasons advanced capita list imperialism in the late nineteenth century. Declining margins caused by the economic crisis can not be resolved through regional expansion. Group of capitalism forced to expand in seeking to transcend national boundaries, enamour new markets and resources. In a certain sense, Marxs analysis, see the expansion and the current process of European colonialism in the country and throughout Europe within, which is amply compatible. The thought of Marx and Lenin, imperialism and colonialism led to the same logic, leading to economic development and modernization in the surrounding areas of Europe. But there is an element of the unique analysis, Lenin. almost the state monopoly capitalism since the end of the competition in the market shoot down the form of military competition between the countries on Earth can be masters of their own exclusive economic zone.

Challenging The Validity Of Fingerprint Evidence

dispute The Validity Of fingermark distinguishThe reliability of fingermark manifest as a inwardness of credit for theatrical role of appeal of law continues to be generally accepted by academia and the nefarious justice constitution. However, despite a long tradition of rhetorical identification to individualize prints thither construct been some recent challenges as to the scientific nates for reproduce recite. These challenges stem from sensible concerns about the potence for human errors in reproduce matching. A major factor in trying to establish the validity of fingerprint try is the abstractive manakin as to the physical looking ats of rhetorical intuition. The psychological aspect of forensic scholarship (the preparation of physical secern for purpose of approach) is likewise a potential Achilles wiener as to the validity of fingerprint demo in picky in countries with an adversarial legal system where the function of counsel is largely to counteract the credibility of the indicate presented.Key words prints, label, reliability, validity, prospect, error, twineIntroductionA fingerprint is a record taken by practice of law of a (usually) know individual chthonic controlled conditions. A mark is an impression ground at a offensive activity scene. The role of fingerprint examiners (dactyloscopists) is to analyse marks (individualize marks) to dress apart whether it/they match the print/s of a cognise individual. fingerprints be routinely apply by police in order to identify amusings and victims of shame (e.g. homicide) and fingerprint certainty remain one of the most practiceed forms of forensic evidence used in a court of law. nonwithstanding this, the dissimilar techniques used by fingerprint examiners have neither been scientifically intumesce-tried nor published in scientific peer surveiled journals.The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a sum of identification (individualization) is establish on a theoretical example as to the physical aspects of forensic science, including persistence, uniqueness and transferability of prints and marks for purpose of identification. Until late there had been no scientific studies conducted to validate fingerprints as physical evidence of identification. Despite this signifi abidet gap in the science of fingerprint evidence, the outstanding honour of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned.The reliability of dactyloscopy techniques as a means of identification continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. However, the use of fingerprint identification as evidence at court inevitably leads to interactions between science and the law where prefatory assumptions ar frequently challenged. There ar 2 various kinds of issues which may arise when presenting fingerprints as evidence at court (i) the lack of scientific rigour in the techniques used, and (ii) the entice of cognit ive biases on intellectual evidence.The evidential value of fingerprint identification fingerprint identification as its used in the criminal justice system is typically done by comparing and attempting to match a mark (latent fingerprint) found at a crime scene with a print taken from a known suspect. The various techniques used by fingerprint examiners in matching two prints are different from e.g. biometric fingerprint checks introduced by the UK Border Agency (UKBA) in 2009 as a means of identification to improve on aerodrome security.The lack of scientific rigour in the techniques usedWhilst the evidential value of fingerprint identification remains unquestioned, even by its critics, it is often fictional that its the theoretical fabric as to the physical aspects of fingerprint evidence, such(prenominal) as the uniqueness and transferability of fingerprints, which make fingerprint identification well suited as forensic evidence for purpose of court. However, these theoretic al underpinnings are often non backed up by scientific evidence and the validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science is therefore a potential Achilles heel in fingerprint evidence.The influence of cognitive biases on full evidenceWhilst the different techniques and methods used by fingerprint examiners vary from those used in automated biometric fingerprint checks, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprint identification are the comparable as for biometric fingerprint checks (such as uniqueness and transferability). The extends from automated biometric fingerprint checks would not however be suitable as forensic evidence at court. The main reason is that apart from the physical aspects of fingerprints, the evidential value of fingerprints is chiefly based upon the expert opinions of fingerprint examiners and governed by the rules on circumstantial evidence. highlighting the lack of objectivity in the analysis and matching of fingerprints, Stoney (1991198) notes In fingerprint work we become internally convinced of identity element we do not prove it. And this works just fine. For fingerprints.The evidential value and admissibility of fingerprint expert evidenceThe Law Commissions report on admissibility of evidence 2008 and 2011The opinion evidence of an expert witness is admissible only if the court is satisfied that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted.The opinion evidence of an expert witness is sufficiently reliable to be admitted ifthe evidence is predicated on sound principles, techniques and assumptionsthose principles, techniques and assumptions have been in good order use to the facts of the case andthe evidence is supported by those principles, techniques and assumptions as applied to the facts of the case.It is for the party wishing to rely on the opinion evidence of an expert witness to show that it is sufficiently reliable to be admitted.This means that guilt feelings cannot be determined by expert evidence alone and that trust in the validity of fingerprint evidence requires a leap of faith. (Broeder, 2006, p. 154)Challenging the Validity of fingermark EvidenceThe validity of fingerprint evidence is drug-addicted upon the credibility of expert witnesses validity of the theoretical framework of forensic science, and the trueness of procedures and techniques used. Despite its lack of scientific evidence, the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints and reliability of methods used are rarely challenged at court. When the theoretical underpinnings of fingerprints are challenged at court, it too tends to disobey the reliability of methods used in a range of forensic evidence.In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the US Supreme Court ruled that forensic evidence has to be two relevant and reliable in order to be valid. However, there are no reliability studies for fingerprint evidence and fingerprint evidence should therefore be ruled inadmissible in a US court of law. Pierce (2011) n otes that the core issue in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. was the validity of deductive reasoning to reach a conclusion. (Pierce, 2011) The validity of fingerprint evidence in movement comes down to an issue of trust and credibility both of which can be undermined.The Daubert case raised the need for a model by which statistically quantifiable measures can be gene vagabondd to objectively assess the reliability of fingerprint evidence. One method considered reliable by US courts is the ACE-V (analysis-comparison-evaluation- tick) method. (Haber Haber, 2008) Despite the promise of such models, Broeder (2007) argues that No expert or expert system can provide incontrovertible categorical evidence i.e. absolute cogent evidence that a certain trace originates from a particular source. There is no objective or subjective, scientific or alternative method that leave behind enable us to do this. Stoney (1991198) argues that trying to prove uniqueness by use of statisti cal models is a ridiculous notion. (Stoney, 1991)Basis for Challenging fingerprint EvidenceDespite significant issues in terms of the validity of both theoretical underpinnings of forensic science and various techniques used, the main reason wherefore fingerprint evidence will continue to be challenged as valid forensic science evidence is that fingerprint matching (recognition, analysis, comparison, and interpretation / evaluation) is in the long run a subjective decision-making answer where results and expert evidence can be influenced by contextual and tick biases (human error) resulting in false identification.Whilst Stoney (1991) appears to argue that its the subjective nature of fingerprint evidence which give the individualization physical functioning credibility, Dror et. al. (2005800) also note that fingerprint identification leads a decision making process (Dror, et al., 2005) which may ultimately result in human error and in false identification. It is therefore u nfortunate that much of the debate is currently cerebrate on attempts to improve on the reliability of fingerprint evidence through and through with(predicate) advancements in technological innovation.Attempts at improving the physical aspects of scientific evidence indicate that some problems with forensic evidence cogency one twenty-four hour period be overcome by future advances in technological innovation. Whilst proficient and scientific evidence are becoming increasingly important for the criminal justice system, Broeder (2006148) suggests that its difficult for judges and juries to assess the validity of expert forensic evidence. (Broeder, 2006, p. 148) Mnookin (2008343) argues that the courts have been seduced by superficial arguments as to the reliability of scientific methods. (Mnookin, 2008, p. 343)Considering that fingerprint evidence is ultimately a decision-making process its difficult to see how fingerprint matching could be replaced by advances in technology suc h as future generations of automatic fingerprint recognition systems (e.g. the ACE-V process/methodology). More movement should perhaps be focused on the social science aspect of expert forensic evidence (in particular psychology) to reduce potential cognitive biases and human error in fingerprint evidence the main basis for challenging fingerprint evidence.Cognitive Biases in Fingerprint EvidenceFingerprint evidence is supported by a general theoretical framework as to the physical principles of forensic evidence. However, fingerprint evidence is ultimately based on a series of decisions formulated by fingerprint examiners through cognitive processes. Whilst Stoney (1991) might argue that becoming subjectively convinced of identity works just fine for purpose of fingerprint matching, as it turns out, fingerprint examiners are highly susceptible to various forms of cognitive biases.Giannelli (2010) describes four different kinds of cognitive biases which may influence decision-m aking in forensic examination of evidence. Giannelli describes contextual bias as occurring when extraneous information influences a decision, typically in cases of ambiguity. Techniques used to avoid the influence of contextual bias when testing a new drug, include randomized (double blind) clinical trials. A similar process as part of the fingerprint verification process has been proposed by Haber and Haber (2003). (Haber Haber, 2003)Giannelli describes confirmation bias in terms of the tendency to test a possible action by looking for instances that confirm it rather than by searching for potentially falsifying instances. Kassin, Dror Kukucka (2013) describe the various contextual influences which may generate bias in forensic evidence, in terms of Knowing the nature and elaborate of the crime, beingness pressured by detectives working within and as part of the police the use of computer-generated lists that feature some suspects ahead of differents appearing in court wit hin an adversarial criminal justice system.Experiments in cognitive biasesThe importance of cognitive psychology of expert evidence has been highlighted in a series of experiments conducted by Dr. Itiel Dror (2005) in which he had took the fingerprints from real criminal cases and presented them to the resembling fingerprint examiners who had previously given evidence at court. By changing the context for the analysis, such as strongly suggesting that a mark had previously been incorrectly matched to a print (or that a mark rifleed to a particular suspect when in fact it did not), the examiners came to different conclusions, contradicting their own evidence given at court.Dr. Drors experiments showed the influence that contextual and confirmation biases can have on the outcome of fingerprint analysis. The research found that fingerprint examiners were more likely to make a match judgment on ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to emotional mount stories of crimes and explicitly d isturbing photographs from crime scenes, as well as imperceptible messages. The researchers cogitate that examiners were more likely to confirm a match in ambiguous fingerprints when exposed to contextual biases highlighting the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence.To further highlight the importance of cognitive psychology in fingerprint evidence, an international panel of fingerprint experts convened to examine errors commit by the FBI which led to the identification of Brandon Mayfield note that the pressure of working on a high-profile terrorism case created an atmosphere which contributed to the misidentification. (US Department of Justice, 2006, p. 177)Error range and ProbabilityError RatesExperiments similar to those conducted by Dr. Dror (2005) have also been conducted by e.g. Ulery et. al. (2012) and Evett and Williams (1995). (Evett Williams, 1995) All such studies find varying degrees of inconsistency. Ulery et. al. found that when the same fing erprint evidence is given to the same examiners, they reach different conclusions well-nigh 10% of the time. (Kassin, et al., 2013) Ulery et. al. (20129) attributed such errors to a lack of quantitative criteria and limited soft criteria for decision. (Ulery, et al., 2012, p. 9)Such error rates are only known as a result of research conducted where examiners were themselves the subject of research experiments. Mnookin (2008b) (Mnookin, 2008) as well as (Haber Haber, 2003) and other researchers point to the lack of transparency of crime laboratories in disclosing the results double-blind tests where e.g. one examiner discover an error do by some other examiner and that no data exist on the error rate correction resulting from the verification process.Jasanoff (2006) notes the right of US citizens to receive information, including scientific and adept information, in order to effectuate the goal of informed participation. (Jasanoff, 2006) However, considering the increasingly co mmercialised nature of forensic laboratories, such error rate data is incredible to be volunteered any time soon.ProbabilityAitken Taroni (2004126) note that evaluation of fingerprint evidence is based on a statistical model of probabilistic inference. (Aitken Taroni, 2004) Probability may be defined as a statistical means of describing uncertainty. (Brenner, 1997, p. 126) Galton (1892100) raised the problem of estimating the probability of two prints (alike in their minutiae) as having been made by two different persons and attempted to give an approximate quantitative idea of the value of finger prints as a means of personalized Identification. Galton (1892110) calculated the probability of two different individuals having the same fingerprints (Type I error) to be less than 1 to 224 x 24 x 28 or about 1 in 64 billion.Neumann (201221) explains the difficulty of probability as faced by fingerprint examiners giving evidence at court If it is his belief that the mark probably do es or almost for certain does or is rather unlikely to match, he is forbidden to say so in court in those cases, fingerprint evidence, for or against the accused, simply does not appear in the case. (Neumann, 2012)So, how common land is it that examiners giving evidence at court arent necessarily 100% certain of the evidence they give at court? According to research by Neuman et.al. it happens in 30% of the all comparisons performed. (Neumann, et al., 2011)Galton notes the effect on probability when matching two or more marks to the prints of a known individual When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to have the same minutiae, the improbability of 1 to 236 becomes squared, and reaches a find out altogether beyond the range of the imagination when three fingers, it is cubed, and so on. When two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc., far above the level of that amount o f probability which begins to rank as certainty. Galton (1892111-112) fiber StudiesBroeder (2006) notes that there have recently been several highly advertize appeals against criminal convictions around the world where forensic evidence has played a significant role in the identification of suspects. Broeder further notes that these have at least partly been associated with inadequate standards of forensic expertise. The following case studies involve examples of Type I errors (false incontrovertibles in fingerprint matching) made by examiners.Case Study 1 Shirley McKieIn January 1997, DC Shirley McKie attended a crime scene in Kilmarnock, Scotland as part of an investigation into the murder of Marion Ross. A angiotensin-converting enzyme mark found at the scene was attributed to DC McKie who denied under oath that it could be hers. DC McKie was later charged with perjury. At her trial, two fingerprint experts disputed the mark belonged to DC McKie. A jury subsequent found DC M cKie not guilty of perjury. In 2008, the Scottish giving medication ordained Sir Anthony Campbell to hold a public inquiry into the identification and verification of fingerprints associated with the case of HM Advocate v McKie in 1999. Sir Campbell noted that the community of interests of fingerprint experts is deeply divided over the case of Shirley McKie and that some experts are perceived by others to be so closely associated with colleagues or organisations that have expressed an opinion that they are not universally regarded as being independent. (The Fingerprint Inquiry, 2011)Case Study 2 Brandon MayfieldIn 2004, the Federal agency of Investigation identified Brandon Mayfields fingerprints as a match to a single mark found on a bag containing explosives used in the Madrid train bombings on 11 March 2004. Mayfields fingerprints had been initially retrieved as a potential match using the FBIs Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Upon closer examina tion, three fingerprint experts reviewing the initial result each confirmed that the mark belonged to Mayfield. (Stacey, 2004) The FBI launched a covert operation and Mayfield was subsequently arrested on 6 May 2004. An independent fingerprint expert appointed by the court to review the evidence (who also knew that a positive match had already been made) also concluded that the mark found did belong to Mayfield. Spanish Police informed the FBI that they had identified the mark as be to an Algerian national. After examining the prints of the Algerian national, the FBI released Mayfield from custody. The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) concluded that the reason for the misidentification was due to the unusual similarity between the latent print and Mayfields known fingerprint which had confused three experienced FBI examiners and a court-appointed expert. (US Department of Justice, 2006)DiscussionFingerprint evidence was first used in the UK in 1858 and is the most common form of forensic evidence used at court today. Fingerprint evidence has also been raised as one of the most important categories of forensic evidence admitted at court. However, a study conducted by Baldwin and McConville (1980) found that forensic evidence played a significant role in only five per cent of cases presented at court.Inman and Rudin (20021) describe forensic science as an applied science based on the laws of physics and chemistry. (Inman Rudin, 2002) Whilst this might provide an appropriate definition of forensic science, it ignores the importance of psychology in forensic evidence.The reliability of fingerprints as a means of identification (individualization) for purpose of evidence at court continues to be generally accepted by academia and the criminal justice system. Mnookin (200116) argues that scrutiny of expert evidence does not take place in a cultural vacuum and infers that fingerprint evidence was accepted too quickly in US courts. In 2013, a US District Court Judge ruled that the process fingerprint identification failed to meet three of the four criteria set for scientific evidence.The technique hadnt been scientifically testedWasnt subject to scientific peer reviewDidnt possess a known rate of errorThe ruling means that whilst the court accepts that the process of fingerprint analysis does not meet the standards set for scientific evidence, the testimony of expert fingerprint analysts may still be admissible as evidence at court.Because the validity of fingerprint evidence is primarily based upon the credibility expert witnesses, challenges as to the validity of fingerprint evidence need to address the psychological aspects of forensic science, in other words the potential cognitive (contextual and confirmation) biases of forensic experts resulting in false identification. agency of this effort might involve simple solutions such as protect fingerprint examiners from the details of crimes being investigated or having all fingerprint experts outright appointed by the courts. Other requirements might involve a lower limit of two marks or more having to match the prints of a suspect before it can be used as evidence at court.

Geriatric Care Available in New Zealand

gerontological Cargon Available in New ZealandIntroduction yearsing cosmos has out growth its tote up for old eon in m whatsoever countries such(prenominal) as New Zealand that has a number of ageing population. Most ageing population are physic wholey fit and ware a halenessy life sentence style. and virtually of their numbers suffers from the most common gerontological problems such as frenzy and Alzheimer which tail assemblynot be pr in timeted due to their age, lifestyle circumstanceors they had when they were young and so as genetical factors. Thus, requires geriatric serve puff uphead in dissimilar de get laidry setting that pass on be able to dish up and reen soak upment them to go on with their life as normal as possible. This geriatric go includes evaluation, handlings, date fromy, fight back groups and includes support groups that are well(p) realiseledge in leaveling geriatrics penurys. defraudThis floor allow identify and describe the differen t geriatric service that assisting the senior population here in New Zealand. That employees and pile of our reside Home allow be well informed accurately of the early(a)(a) services that target as well be offered to the clients and be able to know the proper compassionate that aged good deal needs to be holistically attentiond of. The pass on discussion allow embrace the reality, motivate and to promote quality geriatric health wangle services in our Rest Home with the services that is already forthcoming in the government services.There are different services that the New Zealand Government offers to the aged population to change and cling to their wellbeing. It is well stated by the Minister for Senior Citizen Hon Jo Goodhew (2013) that, Our previous(a) population is becoming increasingly diverse, offering valuable acquaintance, skills and experience. My vision for the future is a place where both angiotensin converting enzyme lives life to the full. This is what we as New Zealanders trust for our parents and grandparents, as well as ourselves and our children in years to come. People who lead full and booming lives in their younger years volition take this success into their older years. The government takes steps to focus the needs and improving the services that volition en real and protect the ageing population welfare and well-being.Health disablement advocacyNg KaitautokoThis service supports people in making certain(predicate) that their human rights are being valued. If in case of health and constipation service complaints advocates takes side of complainants. This service is offered for people for secrete and advocates are unforced to support in assistance to resolve complaints.Health and Disability Advocacy service is helpful for venerable and their family to batten down that they are well knowledge of what are their rights as consumers specially those who are living in a home care. In case the like a member of a family felt that his or her love one is being neglected in a home care due to her illness such as monomania that we all know that is common to the aged. The member stool render help and advice to the advocates to voice out their concerns in regards with the treatment and care. Advocates testament be able to make arrangements for the both parties to resolve the complaint. Updated information prat be admission fee in Health Disability website (www.advocacy.hdc.org.nz)Age vexationHe Manaakitanga KaumtuaAge concern is a non-profit organisation that offers affairful help in the ageing population of New Zealand. They make sure that the whole walfare of every eldery is being respected and honored. recovered population over 65 years old gutter benefit in the services that the organisation offers they use up a elder abuse and neglect prevention this service is available in majority cities in the entire country. The organisation jakes help elders that maybe physically, mentally , emotionally and monetary abuse by their family or new(prenominal)wise(a) people due to their age or current state of health. much(prenominal) information can be access in Age Concern official site (www.ageconcern.org.nz)Alzheimers New ZealandA charitable ecesis that caters its service particularly for elderly with dementia and alzheimers. This institution helps fork out support to people especially family with elderly that might be pang or suffering from the illness. They give well rounded information regarding the early perspicacity and diagnosis of dementia, offer support to families to cope in caring with their love one who is constitute with the illness and they organize programmes for the people who are call with dementia and for the awareness of other people about the tell illness. More up to date information and ongoing support can be seen in Alzheimers New Zealand (www.alzheimers.org.nz)HealthEdHealthEd, it is an online service that provides information to pe ople regarding public health. They give start of up to date information that will boost people knowledge in taking care maintaining and improving of their drink health condition. The website is designed to be easily use by everyone even the elderly they showtime have to register in order to save the article that they want to request and eventually use it as a future reference. erst the sign up is done the person may request or search from the resources the provider have. The articles maybe available in different formats like pampelts, books that can be borrow by individual who wants to learn more regarding on remediatement of their health and their family. More detailed information can be access in HealthEd (www.healthed.govt.nz)Super amberSuper Gold card is a free of charge card and so as a privilege card for the eligible seniors age 65 years and over and veterans in New Zealand. With this card elders can have general discounts in different business establishments. They can e ven have free ride on the government funded means of expat like the buses and trains during the off-peak hours. This card also gives special discount on up-to-the-minute special deals that runs regularly which can be updated thru the website. Elders benefit a volume from this service for it helps them to lessen the amount of their routine expenses. Specific information is provided in the website of Super Gold (www.supergold.govt.nz)Geriatrics Service ProvisionHospitalsHospitalsare one offew institution that provides service to aging populations that diagnose with illness that needs a complete forbearingtreatment and to be look after by specialised staff and equip with equipment that can be used to fully pass judgment a longanimous. All train of care in associate to assessments, interventions and managements care is available in a hospital setting. Hospital is composed of interdisciplinary team member that hand in hand helps patient to improve patient care and outcomes. clini cal set up provides elderlies the available, standardized and up to date treatments that they need to ensure quality of care. It have geriatric co management that have access to different specialist that will be able to properly assess the full detection of illness to decrease mobility and mortality rates. For dementia patient they are assessed more in this institution for it have all the equipments and specialist needed for them to be fully diagnoses with the illness. full general PractitionerGeneral practitionerprovides the first line of medical checkup testingcarein a community they assess, diagnose, treat acute non-life-threatening patient and referral to specialize doctor if necessary. But once patient requires more medical attention that is the time they are send to the hospital for further examination and treatment. Age related alteration such as dementia need to be fully assess in order for medical associate to set the appropriate interventions needed.Residential CareRes idential care services has a different scope of related services for elderlies such as palliative care, rehabilitative services and other geriatric programmes. Residential care are composed of well trained, competence people who will provide supportive and full assistance in everyday aspect of care to the elders. This people are full responsible in making sure that they provide holistic care to the elderlies specially those who are dependent to the care of others. There are different residential care that specialized in care for different geriatric problems such as dementia care, mental challenged patients for they can surely provide proper care and attention to the client.PhysiotherapistsAge associated changes such a s redness of muscles mass and strengths, decrease of muscles force and other physiological changes have a negative impact in elders daily living. For a stroke patient after full assessment proper treatment most elders need to under series of reformation to be able t o cope with their daily life routine and to recover and increase their independence if possible. Interventions for functionality, mobility, gross and fine motor skills is being farm slowly in every session to increase, promote and to enhance elderly functionality for their daily activities to prevent falls and injury.Memory ServicesIt is age related that neurological changes such as memory function and cognition of the aged population is being affect through time. Some elders cognitive subprogram declines where or so still able to sustain information and still have significant cognitive performance. For those who are diagnose with hallucination or Alzheimers infirmity can undergo treatments and lifestyle limiting to be able to improve their cognitive function if not be able to be assess with their daily functional status to ensure their safety device specially they are predisposed to accident such as fall and injuries.DieticiansElders nutrition should be given one of the high est priority to promote and maintain good health. Aged people should have a proper balance of all their daily intake, dietician are experts to help to determine nutritional needs and health of an individual. Individual specially the elderlys who are diagnose or predispose with diabetes should see a dietician to have their assessment, management and modification of their daily intake.As part of the Geriatric Health Care medical specialist I have prepared a simple outline that can be use to help individual such as family members, staffs to gain and to take part in taking care of our elders and understanding the injury geriatrics are facing specially dementia and Alzheimer patients.Our elders needs us specially the frail, known disability and those who have diminished their quality of life. Geriatric problems are not just centered to delirium, malnutirion, falls, incontinence that should be assessed and management. We should be able to recognize and address the every needs of the ol der people to be able to improve our care and their quality of life.To help abstract the stigma that elderlies facing due to their age and conditions mostly those who are diagnose with dementia. We will deliver quality care and collective interdisciplinary labour to protect our elders with some of the current stigma they are facing.Dementia patients faces amicable isolation from individual and their familiesDementia patient may have cognitive decline unlike any other geriatric associate illness they still have emotion and they still need to feel the smell out of belongingness and acceptance of their family and the society.This isolation stigma can be lessen if on that point will be enough knowledge regarding the illness. A health pedagogue will be able to help with managing health education regarding the changes and what to command as the illness affects the patient. With proper care, awareness and understanding will be beneficial to the patient and so as physical and social a ctivities can be offer to maintain their physical, social and cognitive function. Family and friends can have a flexible time of visitation if the patient is settled in a rest home and bonding with family members essential be encourage. Elderlies will be encourage to participate in scheduled physical activities such as routine exercise, indoor and outdoor activities to promote socialization with other patients and people around them.Peoples assumption of automatic tone ending of independence of dementia patientsSome people who are not well informed regarding dementia assumes that individual after by this illness loss their sense of independence. It may be true in some ways only when it is only for the people around the patient can very understand their needs. Family and care providers could be educated regarding the value of independence for elderly with dementia and it is highly recommended to increase functional activity. With simple routine of allow them eat in their own w ith care giver less surveillance can help them to improve their independence. Family members and care providers should be given free education regarding the safety needs of the elderly in regards will falls, injuries and other common complication due to their health condition and to assure the safety as they move independently as much as they can.Dementia patients unable to make ending regarding their own careCognitive worsening may be present in dementia and they may not be able to actively participate in making decision with their care but they still need to be advise of their present speckle, care plan and treatment that they will be undergoing. They may not be directly involve with the care management family should be there to give care and be there to know the situation of the patient. But dementia patient capacity to secure consent should be and could be practice in making, adjusting and changing health care programme though they may not seemly understand and remember the situation the fact they were involve with the process it will give them the sense of individuality.Dissatisfying interaction with the medical communityDementia has an essential research topic for years as this is well labelled aged illness people became hesitant in seeking evaluation. Medical personnel or physicians may sometimes take hesitant in discussing dementia for the patient and family may have sign thought of it is total useless for them to know those vital information because the said illness is non curable and progresses to worst case scenario in time. But having it well explain in an easy manner that can be clear understand and physician can give an clear insights of what to expect and what treatment can be offer can provide an probability to improve the quality life of the patient.Having uncertainty of support services and treatmentsAs some think that dementia have no cure and highly predominate to elders they become uncertain in seeking medical attention in regard s with the illness. For they may think that what is the sense of having it manage if they is no evidence of progress. entertain care like rest homes must to be a neighbourly and safe place of elders with handrails, good and adequate light source, wide doorways, hallways and other setting to ensure safety. Personnels and care givers must will be highly trained to deliver a friendly and non-threating physically, emotionally, mentally environment to dementia patients. Advice that family members and friends are highly advise to bring in patients familiar personal things to promote familiarization. If patient or patient family cannot move over medication or treatment be able to recommend alternatives where they can ask for help or further assistance.ConclusionAll in all, Elderlies many challenges to their health and daily function as it is not inevitable. germane(predicate) interventions is available in many ways as the government also supports and sees the needs of the aged populati on. It is the people surrounds and care for them that is responsible to make use of it for their good. As this interventions and practices will still acknowledge, maximize the older persons capabilities and potential as an individual to function with and without assistance. That sick and well elders must be treated well, individuality is respected and their dignity must be maintain at all times. Elders must be given an opportunity to remain independent and be able to function in the situation as possible they may experience distressing situation but their support system must be evidence at all times.RecommendationGiven the above informations in this report improving the health care for the elderly in facing their geriatrics concern is a hand in hand contribution starting line from the patient, family, friends, elderly institution and the government. Consistent action with all the parties involve will address the identified and the unknown needs of the elderlies to be able to live t heir lives the best way possible. The measure of the overall effectiveness of services provided to the elderlies will show minimum supervision from their caregivers in performing their daily activities and they will be fully accepted by the society the way they should be. With the support and contribution of the government aged care system will be more sustainable and affordable for the each and every individual well and sick. Be able to promote good, positive attitude and awareness towards patients who were diagnose with dementia or any illness and their rights as individual must be respected at all time in any situation.ReferencesAge Concern. Retrieved from http//www.ageconcern.org.nzAlzheimers New Zealand. (2012). Retrieved from http//www.alzheimers.org.nzHealth Disability Advocacy. (2009). Retrieved from http//www.advocacy.hdc.org.nzHealthEd. (2011). Retrieved from http//www.healthed.govt.nzOffice for senior citizen. (2013, October 01). Ministers preface Hon Jo Goodhew. Older New Zealanders-Healthy, independent, connected and respected, 3. Retrieved from http//www.msd.govt.nz/documents/what-we-can-do/seniorcitizens/positive-ageing/older-new-zealanders.pdfSuper Gold. Retrieved from http//www.supergold.govt.nz

Characteristics Of Communicative Language Teaching English Language Essay

Characteristics Of communicatory lecture T sever entirelyying incline Language EssayThe focus of both lesson or ramify of a lesson should be the performing of some action encyclopaedism how to do something, to over condense something which he/she could not do before encyclopedism the lesson. Learner foot get answer to his/her question i.e. why is he/she packing a particular lesson or whatsoever lingual item. The student understands the importance of attainment the same as it is going to help him/her in day-today colloquy. So, here a learner understands and then acts.All these actions fuckful be approached on a variety of different levels of sophistication, and bearing them in mind throughout the commandment/ knowledge act upon.The Whole is more than the sum of its parts angiotensin converting enzyme of the some evidential features of communication is that it is a dynamic and maturateing phenomenon. In opposite(a) words it washbasinnot easily be analyzed into c omp binglent features without its nature creation destroyed in the process. It is possible to identify sundry(a) formal features of the mode oral communication is spend communicatoryly and these can be studied mort everyy. But the exp singlent to handle these elements in isolation is no indication of ability to communicate. What is infallible is the ability to deal with strings of execrations and predilections and in the oral modes processed in real life attitudes.Thus, a crucial feature of a communicative rule is that it operates with stretches of row above the sentence level, and operates with real diction in real situations. Interestingly, this principle may lead to procedures which argon themselves all artificial or analytic. A synthetic procedure would involve students in teaching forms individually and then practicing how to combine them an analytic procedure would introduce cope interactions of texts and focus for learning excogitations on the focus the se argon constructed.So, row utilize in the whole stage setting is more useful than only perusal the parts of it.The processes argon as key as the formsA method which aims at developing the capacity of the learners to communicate in a south dustup bequeath focus at repeating continuously until they argon able to communicate fountainhead in a target linguistic communication. So that the learners argon able to practice the forms of the target oral communication, i.e. side of meat within a given frame live on. It simply means when the lyric is used for communication, the vocabulary forms are used for a process of communication. There are three much(prenominal) processes Information gapCommunication is part and parcel of every human race being. When 2 or more people are conversing in day-today life, one may know something which is not known to the former(a). The purpose of the communication is to yoke this information gap. In schoolroom situation pair work undertaken to finish up an incomplete picture is the best example of transferring information as each member of the pair has a part of total information and attempts to incur it verbally to the other.ChoiceAnother crucial feature of communication is that the learners induce option, both in terms of what they will say and, more particularly, how they will say it. From the point of view of the speaker this means that s/he essential choose the ideas which s/he wants to express with appropriate lingual forms. Foreign language learners may face problems in making choice in this regard.Feed backThis process is implicit in the above two processes. When two persons take part in an interaction, in that location is normally some aim behind communicating and in what way other person reacts is evaluated in terms of that aim. So, the strategies involved in this process are important.Learning by doingIt is now widely accepted that education must(prenominal) be ultimately learner-centred more than th e teacher-centered. The teacher may go on teach, but if the learner is not making any effort, then there is no point of tenet. The teacher must involve the learner and must be judged in terms of its effects on him/her. Another upshot is that learning becomes to a large extent the learners responsibility. The teacher helps, advises, and teaches, guides, the learners themselves harbour to learn. The learner has to be involved in the activity. Only by practicing, acting, actually doing, the learners can learn to communicate.Mistakes are not always a mistake man developing communicative ability of the learners, trivial mistakes of grammar or pronunciation does not matter as long as the learner gets his/her pass on across. In the initial stage of learning to communicate in a contradictory language, mistakes are bound to happen. The learners commit mistakes because they are showing to do something which they switch not been told or shown how to do, how to speak which they render n ot mastered. It means they are not really making mistakes. If the teacher corrects each and everything at every level, the learners may lose their confidence of utilise the language for communication.3.6.4 Principles of communicatory Language TeachingRichards (2006) summarizes the following principles of CLTAuthentic language in real context should be introduced in the classroom whenever possible. It is the language used for day-today communication or functional purpose.By teaching language, learner should be able to contract out speakers or writers intention. So that they will be communicatively competent.There should be connectivity among all the language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing unneurotic since they are regularly used in real life.The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study. Hence, attention should be given to teaching language for communication.One function may have different lingual forms. As t he language is taught for the functional purpose, a variety of linguistic forms are presented together.Students have to learn language properties i.e. viscidness and coherence which are helpful to combine sentences together. It is essential for them as they work with language at the discourse or super sentential (above sentence) level.In CLT, games, lineament plays, group work, pair work, etc. play an important role as they have certain feature in common to learn language effectively.Errors are tolerated and treated as a natural termination of the development of communication skills.Proper situations should be created by the teacher so as to promote communication in the classroom.The sociable contexts of the communicative situations are essential for big(p) meaning to the utterances.The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from the functions, situational context and the role of the interlocutors.3.6.5 communicative Ability and Communicative competenceFor effec tive communication one must have ability to communicate properly and have communicative competence.According to H. G. Widdowson, communicative abilities are those skills in which the system is effected as use. Communicative abilities embrace linguistic skills but not the reverse. Communicative abilities are ways of creating or recreating discourse in different modes. (Widdowson, 1978. 67)These opinions some communicative abilities suggest that these are the abilities which involve linguistic as come up as other skills essential for conversation, communication or discourse to take place.On the other hand communicative competence has been defined in various ways. According to Littlewood, communicative competence means, a degree of command of a very considerable range of linguistic and well-disposed skills which see in part on the learners sensitivity to meaning and appropriacy in language and on his/her ability to develop effective strategies for communicating in the succor lan guage. (Littlewood, 1981.87)K. Johnson and K. Marlow say that communicative competence is the ability to be appropriate, to know the dependable thing to say at the mature time. (Johnson and Morrow, 1981.2)International Encyclopedia of upbringing defines communicative competence as the effective use of language in social contexts. (The International Encyclopedia, 1985.834)According to Widdowson, communicative competency is the ability to flummox sentences for communicative effect. (Widdowson, 1978.1)It is revealed from the above definitions that communicative competence is The ability to use language appropriately in a given social context.The ability to be appropriate to know the right thing at the right time.linguistic competence plus an understanding of proper use of language in various contexts.Knowledge which is additional to linguistic competence.Ability to communicate something which is grammatical, proper, socially accepted, formally possible, fluent in a particular conte xt.In this way communicative competence includes both grammatical knowledge and the ability to use this knowledge to perform different kinds of functions like enquiring, suggesting, greeting, denying, advising, reporting, apologizing, inviting and promising.3.6.6 Dimension of Communicative Competencegrammatic CompetenceSociolinguistic CompetenceCommunicative Competence strategicalCompetenceDiscourse CompetenceFig No.3.3 Components of Communicative CompetenceGrammatical CompetenceGrammatical competence, which refers to Chomskys design of linguistic competence, is indispensable for the practice of linguistic formation of the language. The focus is on suitable structure which helps the learners to use the language appropriately and freely.Sociolinguistic CompetenceSociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role-relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction.Discourse CompetenceDiscourse competence refers to the version of individual message elements in terms of their inter-connectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the faultless discourse or text.Strategic CompetenceStrategic competence refers to the manage strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and re-direct communication.In CLT classrooms, the teachers claim to create activities that would necessitate learners to practice well in the target language.3.6.7 Classroom Activities in CLTThere are various types of exercises and activities in communicative approach which help students to achieve the communicative competence, and lodge in learners in communication (Richards, 2001). Communicative activities play rattling role in communicative language teaching. These activities are helpful for the teachers to broaden their repertoire of techniques and activities so as to enable the learners to communicate more effectively in remote language. Communicative activities are purposeful and objective oriented.According to Littlewood, the communicative activities can be represented diagrammatically as follows. (Littlewood, 2003.86)Structural activitiesPre-Communicative activitiesQuasi Communicative activitiesFunctional Communicative activitiesCommunicative activities kindly interaction activities(This diagram is choose from Littlewoods Communicative Language Teaching, P.86)In these two major categories, the first types (Pre-communicative activities) manage to cram the learner for later communication. The two sub-categories of pre-communicative activities areStructural activities focalisation is on the grammatical system and on ways in which linguistic items can be combined.Quasi- Communicative activities Focus is on one or more typical conversation exchanges. Some resemble drills, but other is closer to dialogues. Drills and dialogues can be combined so as to lead a bridge from formal exer cise to communicative use.Communicative Activities as well have two sub-categoriesFunctional Communicative activities include such tasks as comparing sets of pictures, noting similarities and differences, working out continuously following directions and so on. In these activities learners must work towards a definite solution for a problem.Social interaction activities comprise exchange of words, converse with others, improvisations and debates. Here, teachers prepare learners about the vary social contexts in which they will need to perform outside the classroom using different social interaction activities.There is no unclutter dividing line in reality amid these different categories and subcategories they represent differences of ferocity and orientation rather than distinct divisions. E.g. cued dialogues can be undertaken both as pre-communicative activity and as communicative activity. Similarly it would be arbitrary if we try to specify how much attention must be paid t o communicative function before an activity can be called quasi- communicative, or how significant social meaning must become before it falls into the social interaction sub category. This distinction depends on the varying orientation of individual learner.Difference between pre-communicative and communicative activitiesThe following chart shows the difference between pre-communicative and communicative activities.Pre-communicative (non-communicative) activitiesCommunicative activitiesAAims to develop grammatical competenceAims to develop communicative competenceBFocus on the product of degage utterances.Focus on the appropriate selection of utterances for communication.CPractice of language patterns or elementsPractice of total skill of communication.DFunction is to prepare the learner for later communication.Function is to make the learner to actually communicate.ELearners have controlled practice.Learners use language creatively.FTeacher interventionNo teacher interventionGEmph asis on form, not on context.Emphasis in on context, not on form.HOne long itemVariety of language items.IExamples drilling, question answers, sentence patterns, etc.Examples Role simulation, dramatization, group discussion, dialogue, debate, etc.3.6.8 Learners/Teachers Role in Communicative Language TeachingIn CLT classroom teachers play a vital role in teaching/learning process of side. Teachers select learning activities according to the interest of the learners and engage them in meaningful and authentic language use.There are various roles to be played by the teachers in order to facilitate the language learning process. According to Hedge (2000.63), a communicative classroom involves the teacher in setting up activities, organizing stuff resources, guiding students in group works, engaging contributions, monitoring activities, and diagnosing the nurture needs of students.Richards Rodgers (2001) also describes the roles of the teacher as needs analyst, counselor, and group p rocess manager. Similarly, Harmer (1991) as cited in Nunan and Land (1996) describes the roles of the teacher as Controller, assessor, promoter, participant, resource, tutor and investigator. Of all these roles, Nunan and Lamb suggest that it is the teacher as organizer that is the most important and difficult from the perspective of classroom management.In order to perform all these roles effectively, teachers should be competent enough in all aspects of language teaching. In line with this, Hedge (2000.67) states that, teachers need to build competence and confidence in fulfilling these various roles and in-service nurture is necessary within institutions to ensure that, in any moves towards implementing communicative approaches in the classroom, teachers are properly supported.3.6.9 Role and Relevance of CLT Concepts in Present ResearchSince the main aim of the present seek is to suss out teachers and students difficulties in teaching/learning process of side of meat language , and support the teachers with an in-service training programme by using Communicative Approach which is essential in an ESL (English as a second language) environment, it is noteworthy to furnish the role and relevancy of CLT concepts in the present study.Language is an inevitable phenomenon which permeates the human life. Of all languages, English is the most important language for communication. Naturally, English has become the language of planetary communication rather than a language of literature. Hence the prime need of the learners is not to know the theoretical knowledge of English but to have an ability to understand and be understood in that language.In the medieval it was sufficient to focus only on structural accuracy when learning a language was an entirely academic advantage and an obsession to presume a new language. But in todays world, language teaching is no longer considered a luxury but an obvious need. The language teaching methods in the past were based o n linguistic competence. The establishment of raw material principles of CLT was a reaction in opposition to the previously prevailing language teaching methods. Communicative language teaching aims at developing and alter knowledge and skills that facilitate the learners to make their message effective and victoryful.The main conclusion of communication is the successful transmission of information, not the achievement of grammatical rightness. By widening the horizons with other kinds of competence, CLT initiated progressive and effective ways of teaching. CLT uses and teaches as it is used in every day real life. Students are given the notion of language as real, lived experience. Socio-linguistic, discourse and strategic competences are integral part of communicative language teaching.The use of CLT in the second language classroom is a means of changing the attitude of the students towards language learning as well as positively influencing their way of learning. Over-emph asis on grammatical correctness and fear of making grammatical mistakes has negative effects on students. such as being stressed at class and experiencing sense of failure. CLT creates welcome atmosphere in the classroom in different ways the teachers emphasise on fluency and correctness to learn the target language than correcting the structures and giving instructions on language rules or grammar (Mangubai etal, 2004.292)The focus of CLT is on success rather than failure. The students are encouraged to rely on their own tact and performance skills namely their strategic competence when speaking. Its emphasis is on the learner. (Savignan cited in Magngubhai 2004, 292)The four basic components of communicative competence summarized by Hymes (as cited in Cook, 2003) are argued by some applied linguists as vague theoretical ideas which can hardly be put into practice. The applied linguists draw attention to the accompaniment that ideas of appropriateness and correctness very muc h depend on the ethnic norms of a particular society. They are in a way right in their argument. Language itself is an intrinsic part of finis. Hence, learning a language also implies learning a culture as well. CLT integrates socio-cultural context with language teaching programmes and thus aims at developing students sense of what is right and what is faulty in English.Linguists have pointed out, according to academic query that they have not found one single best method for all learners in all contexts and that no single method appears to be naturally superordinate word to other methods.It is neither possible always nor appropriate to apply one and the same methodology to all learners whose objectives, environments and learning needs are varied and different.CLT is considered one of the best methods for use in the second language classroom for several reasons One, it gives confidence to the students to learn the second language and use it as and when required. Two, CLT draw s attention to the importance of socio cultural skills. Three, the learners are given the realistic idea of language and are provided with a sense of what is appropriate and right in a given culture. Four, the learners learn English language and English culture simultaneously. It is vital and imperative both for teachers and learners, living as they do in a globalized world, to adopt and maintain the effective methods of language teaching/learning offered by CLT.Constant migration of people has become part and parcel of todays globalized world. Hence, English teaching/learning has become inevitable for anyone intending to move onto other states/countries either for higher studies or better careers. In this context, it is necessary to consider the send back between the aspiration for better prospects in life and the existing situation of teaching/learning of English language in schools especially the municipal corporation schools. Hence, the present research study is undertaken to bridge this gap by finding ways and means to know the difficulties of teachers and learners and develop a methodology that will enable them to improve the standards of teaching/learning process of English at school level.3.7 Procedure of the Test to the StudentsA total turn of events of 200 students from class VIII and IX standard of various municipal Corporation Schools were gathered in one of the municipal schools in two spells and the tests on four language skills were given, information was collected, analysed and interpreted in the following chapter.3. 8 menseschart of the Research DesignThe research work during July 2008 to attest 2011 was done as per the steps shown in the following flowchart.A Flow ChartSubmission of the research reportSelection of the problemDTP and vertebral column of final computerized research reportReview of related literature governance of objectivesWriting rough research reports and corrections in itFormation of dead reckoningSuggestions for fu rther research studySample selectionFindings, conclusions and recommendationsPreparation of research tools execution of Pilot studyVerification of ObjectivesTesting of hypothesis entropy collection with the help of questionnaires and its abbreviationAnalysis and recital dataPre-observation of the lessons and its analysisData collection from students tests in all four language skillsImplementation of the training programme for the teachersPost-observation of the teachers lessonsDiscussion with the teachers and Guidance to the teachers3.9 SummaryThis chapter has discussed about the methods and procedures of the research study. It includes research design, the methodology employed for the teachers, procedure used for the research, the sampling design, participants, data collection, in-service training programme, its benefits, and communicative approach for the teachers and its relevance in the present research and analysis techniques. It has also discussed the procedure of the test f or the learners.The next chapter includes analysis and interpretation of the data collected through the questionnaires from the teachers and observation of their lessons and also analysis and interpretation of the students tests in all four language skills questionnaire. Data was classified, analysed, interpreted using the statistical method and conclusions are drawn.

Climate Change and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Essay -- greenhouse gases, clim

Climate change or colloquially known as global warming, now pose a new threat to refining as the levels of nursery gases (GHG) are soaring to new levels. The most momentous contributor to greenhouse gasses would be Carbon Dioxide (Co2). The levels of Carbon Dioxide (Co2) gas mystify risen to levels civilization has non collectn before. As such, the effects of these levels are non known to civilization as data gathered from the ice cores bore in the Antarctica only shows data up to 650,000 years ago. However we shag conclude that present CO2 concentrations are higher compared to any while in the last 650,000 years (IPCC 2007). Current atomic number 6 dioxide concentrations are h everywhereing virtually 389 parts per million (ppm) as of September 2011, compared to the pre-industrialized times (1000- 1750) of 280 ppm (Co2Now). The rate of step-up of the levels of light speed dioxide is about 1.9ppm a year (IPCC 2007) .The amplify in carbon dioxide levels since the industria l revolution is mainly due to CO2 emissions from the burning of fogy fuels such as coal and oil. Therefore if no action is to be taken, the levels of carbon dioxide would soar up higher and the effects to civilization could be devastating. To see what extend Australia is in, the following mentions Australias position in carbon emissions. Australia, which is a developed nation and a member of the OECD, currently holds the translate for being the nation with the highest carbon dioxide emissions per capita among other developed nations (Garnaut 2011). According to Garnaut , Australia emits 26.7 tonnes of greenhouse gasses per-person per year compared to other developing nations such as Luxembourg, United states, Canada and Ireland which emits 26.1, 23.1, 20.6 and 16.5 tonnes respe... ...DP. So in reality, we can see a total net increase in GDP after the implementation of the carbon tax revenue. It is said that the externalize will raise around $27.3 billion over the first foursom e years and will cost $31.6 billion (Oliver 2011). This in addition to the over compensated benefit payments to lower income families would stimulate the economy and this is why we see no reason to change our GDP growth forecasts at this full point compared to pre-carbon tax introduction. In conclusion, it is economically viable and necessary for the carbon tax to be implemented, which would reduce carbon emissions in Australia. The Australian public would not be greatly affected by the rising cost. Over time, with a price being put on carbon, investment in exonerated efficiency and growth in cleaner industries will likely growth reduced investment and slower growth in dirty energy and sectors.

The United States Industrial Boom Essay examples -- American History,

After the Civil War had ended the join States had many challenges to face. There are a variety of factors that aided the field through the tough years that followed the war. The rapid growth of the fall in States helped to go a large flow of immigration, and build an extremely powerful industrial infrastructure, as well as temper the hostility still mystify throughout the country. Trains, and eventually automobiles, opened the West to the rest of the country. People flat had an escape from there lives in the East, and eagerly began to populate the farthest corners of the country. the States was on its way to making an enormous impact on the earths industrial market.Raw materials, immature techniques in the workplace, a enormous increase in the labor force, and numerous technological inventions all vie integral parts in the unify States frugal and industrial boom. Large quantities of coal, iron ore, silver, and gold were discovered in unlike regions in the West. Lead, quartz, zinc, copper, and new(prenominal) precious metals were also found as new areas were uncovered. Around the mines and quarries gathered the workers of the sites along with their families. These people created towns known as boomtowns, which unavoidable transportation in the form of trains for their supplies. The same process happened with numerous other raw materials found in the country as well (Brinkley, 449).The agriculture, cattle, and sheep markets do many people large profits and, as with the stones and metals, relied on the dragoon to bring the goods to the consumers. With the aid of the railroads there was an abundance of agricultural goods in the United States, American commercial farmers, constantly opening new lands, produced often mor... ...in the United States economic growth.America used its massive reserves of raw materials to produce its way into the world industrial market. Railroads brought American settlers and adventurers across the United States to discover more raw materials as well as spread out the countrys population from the crowded East. New technologies and innovations allowed for the manipulating of resources until they produced as much profit as possible. The concentration of power and monopolies required, and received, massive numbers of tatty labor. It was that very wealth the monopolies created that attracted millions of immigrants to this country to find work. A cycle of factors where each one played a part, some more crucial than others, save equally dependent upon one another. This cycle fueled Americas industrial boom, and propelled it into the worlds industrial market.

The Development of the Hero in Little Women Essay -- Louisa May Alcott

Louisa May Alcott furnishes a probing run into at the hero through recognition of how the imaginary hero of romanticistic fiction is not always the ideal spot bringing the commentator to see the heroic in the everyday lives of four puppylike women with the uncreated emphasis falling on Jo. In the chapter, Castles in the Air, as each(prenominal) of the roughages envisions the distant future (ten years hence anyway), Jo remarks, I want to do something splendid before I go into my castle-- something heroic or extraordinary that wont be bury after Im dead. I dont know what, but Im on the watch for it, and mean to astonish you all some day (Alcott 133). As the book progresses, many references are made to show the shallowness that has begun to be associated with the heroic. . . . Laurie heroically shut his eyes . . . (Alcott 264). Fred is not my model hero (Alcott 294). Finally, Jo focuses the skirmish in recognizing the heroic when she reaches the point of realizing that she p referred imaginary heroes to real iodines, because when jade of them, the former could be shut up in the tin kitchen coin bank called for, and the latter were less manageable (Alcott 298). With Jo March, Alcott presents a modern young cleaning woman in a day when women were very much relegated to a specific role within the home. From the opening pages of the book, Jo exhibits a unique strength of character that refuses to be molded to the traditional form. She longs to be a boy, primarily because of the opportunities open to the male in society. However, taking her unusual family upbringing and applying it to Jos determination to be different creates an individual who is heroic in her strength and courage to suffer out in society and her ability to share that quality with othe... ...he married woman and mother. Rather, she insists that she will carry her share and help in the earning of the home as a condition of marriage (Alcott 438). Jos journey to the heroic ultimately leads her to a role where her life is spent in giving herself to others, shaping them to be themselves while still maintaining proper place in the grand lineation of things. Through her characterization, a hero is fully developed as one with the strength of character that allows one to be uniquely different while seeking always to help others in the journey of life by placing them ahead of oneself. Jos heroic act that will not be forgotten after shes dead, only a dream as a young lady, is realized through the lives she touches and the future generations she ultimately affects. Works Cited Alcott, Louisa. Little Women. Intro. Ann Douglas. NY Signet Classic, 1983.

A Student According to Ted Kooser Essay -- poem analysis and review

Ted Koosers poem Student underlines how the vitality of a scholar truly is. As we were discussing our insights of the poem Student by Ted Kooser, Omar Mejia mentioned how he found a similitude with a turtle in the poem. I have imagined a bollix turtle and their journey when is born and running trying to reach the sea. create mentally the life of a turtle that their life starts in the sand and subsequently its journey to their future begins. Somehow I agree with this idea. As I imagined the complicate and hard life that a sea turtle must have I also recall how the life of a schoolchild could be as hard and complicate. Some times the life of a student can be complicated, busy, confusing, struggling, happy, sad, depressing, demanding and joyful and so on and so forth. The life of a student is a life full of responsibilities Kooser first mentions the better(p) friend of a student The green shell of his backpack(Line 1). A backpack that will accompany the student during most of t he studying time in which a student will carry their books, notes maybe a computer. As of me I have my backpack most of the time at s...

In praise of the F Word, by Mary Sherry :: Failing Students Who Deserve to Fail

In the article In praise of the F Word bloody shame Sherry discusses the F word, which means failure. basically Mary Sherry stated that the kids of today ar traceting cheated out of a good education. They ar passing through the school system because whatever are good kids and they do not create some(prenominal) problems in the classroom. But, at the same time employers are also world cheated because they foresee graduates to have the basic skills. She also stated that Diplomas are considered meaningless because close to of these kids who were awarded one could not read or write properly and therefore, they are back in night school along with adults who are exhausting to get their G.E.D. Mary Sherry teaches an evening class and came to the conclusion that kids are organism cheated when she asked them to write about an unpleasant experience in school. They all wrote something negative, they were hollo out for help. It was also indicated that the teachers should have been mo re than forceful in use the F word. Instead, these kids are now very angry and resentful for being passed along. It was also noted that your environment should not be an issue because close to kids do not progress to school seriously and the teachers should have been more forceful with the F word. This also causes the employers to be cheated out of what they expect from their employees. Employers are also being cheated because the teachers fail to do their job right. For example, if a school-age child went to school to be a nurse and is passed because he or she doesnt disrupt class and was a good student this cause them to get a diploma. However, when they get into the real world they hind endnot deliver what is expected of them and can also be very costly for the employers. Therefore, the employer has no choice moreover to rehire and retrain. If the teacher were using the F word then the student would take the class more seriously and realize that their future is at billet. Finally, Mary Stated that Many people can rise above any situation if they are motivated, encouraged and knowing that they have something at stake to loose.

The Rural Way of Life in The River Warren :: warren

The hobnailed Way of Life in The River Warren   Any sensation who has taken a spark across the midwestern states has seen a different way of life. The River Warren gave the readers a sense of this rural way of life around the Two-Speed semi crash. Corn, wheat, and separate agricultural products can be seen for miles and miles in all directions. As you grounds through, you can see developers hard at work, combines, tractors, and bailers all working at full speed, sun up to sun down. It doesnt take long as well as see how much these farms must work in order to survive. why must these farmers devote so much of their lives to the profession? The answer to this question can become very complicated. When one sells any product, economics is the controlling factor with regards to price and the quantity of ones particular product. Many external factors knead a huge role in the supply and demand of farm products. The focus of this paper is to explore some of the fact ors that make farming such(prenominal) a hard, volatile business.   In the book, the Gruber family is a good example of a small farming family. Leo is the head of the household and, therefore, spends all or most of his time working on the farm. Jeff Gruber, Leos son, speaks of his fathers work in one passage. Leo stated his fathers capacity for work grated on him (76). This family was always obligate to work. At night, the tractor-trailer would come to load cattle. Jeff stated the days were full of plowing, discing, harrowing, planting, cultivating, harvesting, and eating the cattle (76). Growing up in this setting meant work at a young age for the children. Jeff and his younger brother, Chris, are not exceptions. In the story, Chris is killed in a farming accident. Chriss youth and his inexperience with farm equipment were outweighed by the studys of the farm. Unfortunately, this kind of tragedy happens in real life as well. The book describes this way of life in many sections but never answered why life was like this. Why this much work was motif was never answered. Now we will explore this question.   First thing we need to look at are some of the external factors that apply to the family farm.